Vaisheshikha—Analysis
of the Aspects of Reality
The founder of Vaisheshikha philosophy is sage Kanada, who was also known as Uluka, so
this system is sometimes called Aulukya. Kanada wrote the first systematic work
of this philosophy, Vaisheshikha Sutra. This work is divided
into ten cantos, each containing two sections. Prasastapada wrote a great
commentary on this Sutra entitled Svartha
Dharma Samgraha that is so profound and famous that it is called Bhashya,
which simply means ‘commentary’. Two well-known explications of Prasastapada’s
work are Udayana’s Kiranavali and
Sridhara’s Nyayakandali. The most
remarkable concept of this system is the introduction of a special category of
reality known as Uniqueness (vişeśa).
Thus this system is also known Vaisheshikha.
Vaisheshikha is
allied to the Nyaya system of philosophy. Both systems accept the liberation of
the individual self as the end goal, both view ignorance as the root cause of
all pain and misery, and both believe that liberation is attained only through
right knowledge of reality. There are however, two differences between Vaisheshikha and the Nyaya system. First,
Nyaya philosophy accepts four independent sources of knowledge—perception,
inference, comparison and testimony but Vaisheshikha accepts only two—perception and inference. Second Nyaya
maintains that all of reality is comprehended by 16 categories (padārthas) whereas Vaisheshikha recognizes only seven categories.
Seven categories of Reality are dravya (substance), guņa
(quality), karma (action), sāmānya (generality), vishesha (uniqueness), samavaya (inherence) and abhāva (non existence). The term padārtha means ‘the object denoted by
the word and according to Vaisheshikha philosophy
all objects denoted by the word can be broadly classified into two main classes—that
which exists and that which does not exists. Six of the seven padārthas are in the first class, that
which exists. In the second class, that which does not exists, there is only
one padārtha, abhāva, which stands for all negative facts such as the
nonexistence of things. The first two categories of reality—substance and
quality are treated in greater detail than the remaining five.
1. The
Category of Substance—Nine Dravyas
Dravyas, substance, is that in which a quality or an
action can exist but which in itself is different from both quality and action.
Without substance, there cannot be quality or an action because substance is the
substratum of quality and action, and it is also the material cause of the
composite things produced from it. A cloth for example, is formed by the
combination of a number of threads of certain colours. The threads are the
material or constitutive causes of the cloth because it is made of the threads
that subsist in the cloth.
There are nine kinds of substances, earth, water, fire,
air, ether, time, direction, soul, and mind. The first five of these are called
physical elements because each of them possesses a specific quality that can be
perceived by the external sense faculty. Each of the senses is composed of
these elements, whose distinguishing qualities are registered by specific
sensory receptors. For example, smell is the particular property of the earth
and is apprehended by the nostrils, or taste is the particular property of
water which is perceived by the tongue.
Paramanu—the
smallest particle of earth, water, fire and air
In Vaisheshikha, the smallest part is called paramāņu or atom. This is not to be
confused with the modern scientific word atom because an atom as described in
nuclear physics is itself composed in many parts. The Vaisheshikha usage refers to the most
indivisible state of matter. The atoms of water, earth, fire and air are eternal
because an atom is part less and cannot be produced or destroyed. The common
elements of air, water, fire and air are noneternal because they are produced
by a combination of atoms and therefore can disintegrate and change. The
existence of atoms is proved by inference not by perception. All composite
parts of the world can be broken into smaller parts. But when one comes to the
part which cannot be broken further that minutest part in Vaisheshikha is called atom. Atoms can neither
be produced nor destroyed they are eternal.
Akasha—Ether: There are types of atoms ie atoms of
water, fire, air and earth each having their own peculiar qualities. Akasha,
the fifth substance, is the substratum of the quality of sound, is not made up
of atoms. Sound can be perceived, but akasha cannot be perceived because it
lacks two conditions for the perception of an object ie perceptible dimension
and manifest color. Therefore, Akasha cannot be perceived but can be inferred
from the perception of the quality of the sound that it contains. Akasha is the
one and eternal because it is not made up of parts and does not depend on any
other substance for its existence. It is all pervading in the sense that it has
an unlimited dimension and that its quality (sound) is perceived everywhere.
Direction and Time are also imperceptible substances
and they are likewise single, eternal, and all pervading. Direction is inferred
on the basis of such concepts such as here, there and so on. Time is inferred
from the concepts now, today, tomorrow and so forth. Although all pervading
space, direction and time are spoken of as many due to certain limiting
conditions known as Upadhis, eg when the indivisible space is limited by a jar,
that space is known as the space of the jar. In the same way time is referred
to as one hour, two hours and direction as east, west, north etc.
Soul—or Atman is also considered to be eternal
and all pervading. According to Vaisheshikha philosophy there are two kinds of souls, individual and
supreme. The former is known as jivatman and the latter as Iswara. The Supreme
Soul is inferred to be the creator of the world in the same manner as has been
explained in Nyaya. Conversely the individual soul is perceived to possess
mental qualities like I am happy.
Mind— The mind is considered to be the ninth
kind of substance. It is the eternal sense faculty of the individual soul. Like
the soul, the mind is indivisible. Its existence is not perceived from inferred
from the following propositions. First, like an external sense facility is
required to perceive the outer world, an internal sense facility is required to
perceive the inner objects like soul, pleasure and pain. Second it is apparent
that the five external senses may all be in contact with their respective
objects simultaneously but not all perceptions are received at the same time.
Attention is focused on one object, which means that there is a coordination of
the mind with the senses. We must thus admit the existence of the mind as an
internal sense facility.
2. The
Category of Quality—Twentyfour Gunas
Guna, quality the second of the seven categories of
reality cannot exist by itself but exists only in a substance. It cannot, thus,
be the constituent or material cause of anything’s existence. It differs from
substance and action in the sense that it is an unmoving property.
The 24 gunas are rupa—colour, rasa—taste, gandha—smell,
sparasha—touch, shabda—sound, samkhyā—number, parimāna—magnitude, prithaktva—distinctiveness,
samyoga—conjunction or nearness, buddhi—cognition, saukha—pleasure, duhkha—pain,
iccha—desire, dvesha—aversion, prayatna—effort, gurutva—heaviness, dravatva—fluidity,
sneha—viscidity, samskara—tendency, dharma—merit or virtue, and adharma—demerit
or nonvirtue. A brief description follows.
According to Vaisheshikha there are six colours—white, black, red, blue, yellow and
green and there are also six tastes—sweet, sour, bitter, pungent, astringent
and salty. Smell is divided into two categories—good and bad and touch is
divided into three—hot, cold and neither hot or cold. There are two kinds of
sound, dhvani (unarticulated) and
Distinctness is the quality by which one knows that one
thing is different from another. Conjunction is the quality by which one knows
the existence of one or more things at one place or in one time. Disjunction is
that quality by which a substance is perceived as being either remote or near
in time or space.
Buddhi means knowledge and should not be confused with
buddhi of Samskhya philosophy explained as intellect. Pleasure is a favorable
experience of mind and pain is the opposite. Effort is the quality by virtue of
which a substance is capable of changing its position. There are three kinds of
effort—striving towards something—against something and vital functioning.
Heaviness is that quality by virtue of which a substance is capable of falling,
while fluidity is the quality by virtue of which it flows. Viscidity is the
quality—belonging exclusively to the element of water.
Samskaras are innate tendencies; they can be of
anything, not just the mind. There are three kinds of samskaras in a substance,
activity—which keeps a thing in motion, elasticity—which makes a thing tend
towards equilibrium when it is disturbed and mental impressions which enables
one to remember and recognize a thing. Dharma and Adharma means that which is
accordance with the conscience and its opposite. The remaining five categories
are as follows.
3. The
Category of Action—Karma
Karma, action is viewed in the Vaisheshikha school as
being physical movement, but the term physical here refers to no more than just
bodily movements because in Vaisheshikha mind is also considered to be a kind
of substance. There are five types of action—upward, downward, inward, outward
and linear. The action of perceptible substances like earth, water, fire and
air can be perceived by the five senses, but not all the actions of tangible
substances can be perceived. The movement of the Earth, for example, cannot be
perceived, it can only be inferred.
4. The
Category of Generality—Sāmānya
Generality relates to abstract characteristics that is
singular and eternal and yet pervades many. Like leadership is a single
characteristic, but it resides in many individuals. Leadership is also eternal
because it was already in existence before the first leader emerged and will
continue to exists even if there are no more leaders. Samanya is the essence of
the common characteristics that unites different entities into one class.
Vaisheshikha recognizes
three levels of generality or universality—highest, lowest and intermediate.
The highest kind of generality is existence itself—sattā. The lowest kind has the most limited referents such as
American-ness, Indian-ness that are generalities present in all Americans,
Indians. Concepts such as substantiality represent the intermediate level of
generality because they do not include many categories of reality like action,
quality and so on.
5. The
Category of Uniqueness—Vishesha
—Uniqueness is that characteristic of a thing by virtue
of which it is distinguished from all other things. Like space, time, soul it
is eternal. Everything in the world regardless of whether it is existent or
nonexistent is accompanied by uniqueness. Generality and uniqueness are
opposite concepts.
6. The Category of Inherence—Samavaya
There are two kinds of relationships between things:
nearness—samyoga and inherence—samavaya. Nearness is one of the 24
gunas of Vaisheshikha but
inherence is one of the seven categories of reality described in this system.
Nearness is temporary, allows two more things to exist together without being
affected by each other. This nearness is an external relationship existing as
an accidental quality of the substances related to it. Inherence, on the other
hand, is a permanent relation between two entities, one of whom inheres in the
other. Here one of the entities depends for its existence on the other. Further
terms within an inherent relationship cannot be reversed as those that are
related by nearness.
7. The
Category of Nonexistence—Abhāva
Abhava is different from the first six categories in
the sense that it is negative. Nonexistence is not found in any of the six
positive categories, and yet according to Vaisheshikha philosophy nonexistence exists, just as, for instance, space
and direction do. E.g., how does not one know that there is no chair in the
room? Answer by looking at the room. Thus nonexistence also exists as such.
There are three types of nonexistence: the absence of
something in something else and mutual nonexistence. The former is of three
kinds: antecedent nonexistence, the nonexistence of a thing after its destruction
and absolute nonexistence. Kind one refers to the nonexistence of a thing prior
to its creation for eg in the sentence ‘A book will be written using this
paper’ the book is nonexistent in the paper. But when a book is written its
previous nonexistence comes to an end. Kind two assumes that there is something
in existence, which shall cease to exist after its destruction for e.g. when a
jar is broken into pieces, and then there is nonexistence of that jar. Kind
three is the type of nonexistence that does not belong to time and space is
called absolute nonexistence.
Mutual nonexistence is the difference of one thing from
another. When one thing is different from another, they mutually exclude each
other, and there is the nonexistence of either as the other. For example, a pen
is different from a book, so there is nonexistence of the book in the pen and
of the pen in the book.
The Concept
of the Creation and Annihilation of the World
Vaisheshikha holds
on to the atomic theory of existence, according to which the entire universe is
composed of eternal atoms. But at the same time, Vaisheshikha does not ignore the moral and
spiritual laws that govern the process of union and separation of atoms. In
this way the atomic theory of Vaisheshikha is
different from the atomic theory of modern science. Modern science’s theory
proposes a materialistic philosophy; it explains the law of universe as
mechanical, as being the result of the motions of atoms in infinite time, space
and direction. According to this view, mechanical laws govern the operation but
according to Vaisheshikha the
functioning of atoms is guided by the creative or destructive will of the
Supreme Being. This will of the Supreme Being directs the operation of atoms
according to the past Samskaras of individual beings.
Vaisheshikha states that the universe has two aspects,
one eternal and one noneternal. The eternal constituents of the universe are
four kinds of atoms—earth, water, fire, and air and the five substances—space,
time, direction, mind and self. These are not subject to change and cannot be
created or destroyed. Another part of the universe is noneternal, that is,
subject to creation and destruction in a particular time and space. In the
beginning of creation two atoms are united into a dyad, which is noneternal
because it can be divided again into two. The dyads and atoms cannot be
perceived but are known through inference. The combination of three dyads is
called a triad that is the smallest perceptible object. It is from these triads
that other larger compounds develop. Thus the common elements comprised of two
eternal atoms are noneternal because they can be broken down into smaller
units.
Thus, according to Vaisheshikha philosophy, the word is a moral stage on which the life and
destiny of all beings is governed, not only by the physical laws of time and
space but also by the moral law of karma. In the performance of present karma,
an individual is free and is thus the creator of his own destiny, but the
starting and ending point of the universe depends on the creative or
destructive will of the Supreme Being. The universal law (adŗşta) of the process of creation and annihilation influences the
individual selves to function or to be active in the direction of the creative
will. Directed by this unknown force of adrsta, the soul makes contact with an
atom of air, thus the primeval motion comes into being. That primeval activity
in air atoms creates dyads, triads and all the rest of the gross physical
manifestations of air elements (mahābhutas).
In a similar manner, there arises motion in the atoms of fire, water and earth,
which then compose the gross elements of fire, water and earth. In this way the
vast physical world comes into existence.
The Supreme Lord is endowed with perfect wisdom, detachment
and excellence. He releases the adrsta related to individual human beings,
which guides the individuals in their flow through the currents of life. At the
end of life, the process of dissolution and annihilation also depends on the
will of God. He inspires the adŗşta
corresponding to the individuals or the universe, and then a destructive motion
in the atoms of the body and senses or in the cosmos starts vibrating. On
account of this destructive motion, then arises the process of disjunction and
disintegration of the body and senses or of the universe. Compound things break
down into simpler and simpler components, finally devolving into the state of
triads and dyads and ultimately into atoms. In this manner the physical
elements of earth, water, fire and air and the related sense organs are
disintegrated. After the dissolution of the manifest universe, there remain the
four kinds of atoms of earth, water, fire and air as well as the eternal
substances of space, time, direction, mind and soul with their attendant
meritous and nonmeritious samskaras.
Thus, according to the Vaisheshikha system of philosophy, there is no creation or annihilation
but rather than orderly and morally systematized composition and decomposition
of compounds. An individual self or soul is involved in the universe because of
Adrsta. The karma of each soul is its own earnings, deposited in the safe of
the Supreme Being, which go back to the self with interest. The Vaisheshikha concepts of God, liberation of
soul, and of the path to liberation are all basically the same as the Nyaya
concepts that have been discussed in the earlier chapter.
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